Mohammed Pazhouhesh; Azar Hosseini Fatemi
Abstract
Beliefs as triggers of performance and ESL proficiency as the ultimate goal of second language education play a significant role in language learning achievement. Using a qualitative approach, this paper aimed to examine the conception of English language proficiency from the perspectives of EFL policymakers, ...
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Beliefs as triggers of performance and ESL proficiency as the ultimate goal of second language education play a significant role in language learning achievement. Using a qualitative approach, this paper aimed to examine the conception of English language proficiency from the perspectives of EFL policymakers, teachers, and learners in Iran. To this end, a select group of 20 people were interviewed. After audio-recording, transcribing, the interview data were coded via MAXQDA software. Iterative data collection and analysis continued until a point of saturation was reached with 20 participants. Grounded in their perspectives, the findings showed a conceptual gap and diversity of conceptions on the nature, characteristics, approaches, and goals of English language proficiency. Based on the results, a framework for developing ESL proficiency is proposed in which the views of the groups are incorporated, Cummins’ notions on ESL proficiency underlie its theoretical foundation, and the Common European Framework of Reference forms its practical basis. The findings have some implications for practitioners, syllabus designers, policymakers, and learners as well.
Hafez Shatery; Azar Hosseini Fatemi
Abstract
Mateas and Sengers (1999) view narrative intelligence as an entity’s ability to narratively organize and explain experiences. Likewise, Graesser, Singer and Trabasso (1994) regard narrative intelligence as the ability to comprehend and make inferences about narratives that he is told. Other researchers ...
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Mateas and Sengers (1999) view narrative intelligence as an entity’s ability to narratively organize and explain experiences. Likewise, Graesser, Singer and Trabasso (1994) regard narrative intelligence as the ability to comprehend and make inferences about narratives that he is told. Other researchers state that narrative intelligence is the ability to produce affective responses such as empathy to narratives one hears (Mar et al., 2011). All cognitive processes in people’s lives depend upon narrative intelligence. According to Randall (1999), narrative intelligence is the ability to perceive and produce narrative structures. While the role of emotional and verbal intelligences has been the subject of many studies in the past decade, there has been a dearth of studies into narrative intelligence. As such, the present study aimed to investigate the extent to which EFL classes boost students’ narrative abilities in different educational contexts, namely, private language institutes and public schools. In addition, it is intended to see if there was a relationship between gender (male vs. female) and the narrative intelligence of students in the above mentioned educational contexts. The data were collected using the Narrative Intelligence Scale (NIS) and then fed into SPSS software. The results of the study revealed that EFL learners in private language institutes enjoyed a higher level of narrative intelligence compared to their counterparts in public schools. In addition, it was revealed there was a significant difference between gender and the narrative intelligence of students at the two educational contexts.
Gholam Hassan Khajavy; Behzad Ghonsooly; Azar Hosseini Fatemi
Abstract
1. IntroductionIn recent years, research on emotions has attracted the attention of many researchers (Butz, Stupnisky, & Pekrun, 2015; Frenzel, 2014). Teachers’ emotions can be as important as students’ emotions. Although many studies have focused on investigating emotions among students, ...
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1. IntroductionIn recent years, research on emotions has attracted the attention of many researchers (Butz, Stupnisky, & Pekrun, 2015; Frenzel, 2014). Teachers’ emotions can be as important as students’ emotions. Although many studies have focused on investigating emotions among students, very few studies have examined emotions among teachers (Chang, 2009; Frenzel, 2014). Moreover, the studies which have examined emotions among teachers have mostly examined them in general education, and very few studies have been conducted on English language teachers’ emotions. To have a better understanding of learning and teaching English, it is necessary to get more familiar with teachers’ emotions. Teaching consists of different positive and negative emotions (Hargreaves, 1998). However, six discrete emotions are considered as the most salient ones (Frenzel, 2014). These emotions include enjoyment, pride, anxiety, anger, boredom, and shame. Although previous research has developed a scale for assessing emotions, this scale is limited only to enjoyment, anxiety, and anger, while other emotions among teachers have not been examined.Teaching is full of emotions and these emotions play a vital role in teachers’ professional career (Hargreaves, 1998). Motivation, cognition, and emotions are considered to be three main components of the mind (Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Teachers experience both positive and negative emotions. The importance of teachers’ emotions lies in the fact that they are related to other individual difference constructs which are related to both teachers and students.. For example, previous research has shown that negative emotions are directly related to teachers’ burnout, while positive emotions can hinder burnout (Chang, 2009, 2013). Among both positive and negative emotions, enjoyment is the most dominant emotion that teachers experience (Frenzel, 2014). Among negative emotions, anger is the main emotion experienced by teachers (Frenzel, 2014). The main reason for teachers’ anger has been reported to be students’ disruptive behavior (Chang, 2009). The purpose of the present study was to develop and validate a scale for assessing English language teachers’ emotions. This scale included items from previous studies as well as new items developed by the researchers.2. MethodologyA total number of 326 teachers who were teaching English in language institues took part in this study. Among the participants, there were 227 female and 95 male teachers. Five participants did not write their gender. Teachers’ age ranged between 20 and 40 with a mean of 27.88. Moreover, teachers had between 1 and 21 years of teaching experience. In order to assess emotions, the newly developed qustionnaire was sent for the teachers online. The questionnaire assessed six emotions of enjoyment, pride, anxiety, anger, boredom, and shame. Each subscale included four items measured on a six-point Likert scale rangigng from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In order to analyze the data, exploratory factor analysis was run by SPSS. To check the unidimensionality of the scale, Rasch analysis was run by Winsteps. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was run by Mplus.3. ResultsIn order to check the unidimensionality of the scale, Rasch analysis was conducted. MNSQ statistics confirmed the unidimensionality of the scale. Following this, exploratory factor analysis was run. Before that, KMO and Bartlett test of sphricity were investigated in order to be sure that the data were ready for factor analysis. Upon confirming the factorability of the scale, exploratory factor analysis with principal component analysis and varimax rotation was run. The results showed a six-factor solution and items loading on each factor. Three items did not load on any factor due to very low factor loadings and therefore were removed for further analyses. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted and goodness-of-fit indices were all within the acceptable range. In addition to validity, reliability of the subscales was also investigated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .64 to .88 which confirmed the reliability of the subscales.4. ConclusionsThis study was conducted to develop and validate a scale for measuring English language teachers’ emotions in the Iranian context. Results of Rasch analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the construct validity of the scale. This questionnaire can be used by researchers for future research. Supervisors in English language institutes can also benefit from this scale. For example, using this questionnaire, supervisors can become aware of their teachers’ emotions and provide more support for the teachers accordingly. Like all studies, this research had some limitations. While we tried to develop a scale for the most important emotions, there are still other emotions which were not included in the present scale. Therefore, future research is needed to develop scales for other emotions. Moreover, validity and reliability of this research are limited to the present study and further research is needed to confirm the validity and reliability of this research in other contexts.
Azar Hosseini Fatemi; Ghasem Barani
Abstract
1. IntroductionIt is believed that the primary mission of educational systems is the creation, preservation, integration, dissemination, and application of knowledge. Educational systems engage in different knowledge management activities among which knowledge sharing has been claimed to be the most ...
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1. IntroductionIt is believed that the primary mission of educational systems is the creation, preservation, integration, dissemination, and application of knowledge. Educational systems engage in different knowledge management activities among which knowledge sharing has been claimed to be the most important one. The knowledge-based view of the organization considers the organization as a knowledge-creating entity (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990) and argues that effective knowledge management is a crucial factor for success in every sector including higher education. It has become a norm to refer to today’s economy as a knowledge-based economy. Knowledge is increasingly becoming “the” resource, rather than “a” resource for wealth generation; ''knowledge is power''. It is widely recognized that knowledge is the critical asset to individual as well as organization to succeed in the increasingly competitive environment (Alavi & Leidner, 1999; Taghvaee Yazdi & Eynali, 2015; Van den Hooff & De Ridder, 2004; Yang, 2007). The present study aimed to examine the relationship between learning organization culture and knowledge sharing intention with emphasis on the mediating role of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior among EFL and non-EFL university instructors in Iran. It also sought to investigate whether the proposed model of knowledge-sharing intention (KSI) fits the data in the EFL context of Iran. 2. Methodology Due to the aim of this study, examining the relationship between learning organization culture and knowledge sharing intention emphasizing the mediating role of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour among EFL and non-EFL university instructors in Iran, participants were selected from both groups of university instructors and were organized into two groups, each consisting of 100 individuals. A self-reporting questionnaire with 41 items was given to each participant to measure their perceptions of knowledge-sharing intention (KSI) (5 items), organizational commitment (OC), organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), and learning organization culture (LOC). All these four instruments were originally developed and validated in the U.S. and in English but for this study the Persian versions of questionnaires were used in order to increase the return rate (Khajavy, Ghonsooly, Hosseini, & Choi, 2016). All the scales were translated by the researcher into Persian and then were back-translated into English by an expert in translation. Back-translation was used to assure the accurate translation of the scales. All the variables were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 5, indicating strongly disagree and strongly agree, respectively. Descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modelling (SEM) were applied; at the end, AMOS 16 software was used in order to analyse the data.3. DiscussionAs it has already been mentioned, many organizations try to provide conditions in which their staff could learn continuously and share their ideas in order to help accumulate and change a bunch of personal experiences and knowledge into organizational knowledge KSI. A closer analysis of the results proved that EFL instructors held a higher degree of KSI, organizational commitment (OC), and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) compared to those by their counterparts in the non-EFL group. The reason can be attributed to the fact that non-EFL group included instructors of a variety of university fields, holding a vast range of job positions and opportunities. Besides, subcomponents of each questionnaire need more scrutiny to achieve a better understanding of the causes involved. Members of this group especially those involved in engineering fields were mainly busy with out-of-campus jobs. This study contributes to our knowledge in several important ways. First and foremost, it showed that what is considered to be a determining factor in a setting could vary profoundly across different educational centres. Factors considered as predictors were not of the same significance in different settings and for different staff. Based on the findings of this study, some further research issues were raised. First, job conditions determine one’s recognition about what behaviours and relations will flourish and develop in an organization. Therefore, the same study could be applied for different situations and job conditions. Second, the underlying reasons causing these phenomena with respect to subcomponents of each factor can be the focus of further research. Also, the indirect relationships involved in the current or similar studies can be taken into account and the last point is that the findings of studies similar to the current one can be exploited for managerial and administrative purposes both in academic and business settings.4. ConclusionThe results showed that LOC was positively and significantly related to OC. Further, it was concluded that OC was positively and significantly related to KSI. It was also found that there was a great positive and significant relationship between OCB and KSI. The results revealed that LOC was positively and significantly related to OC, and OCB. Furthermore, it was concluded that OCB was positively and significantly related to KSI. The results also indicated that there was a significant difference in the scores for KSI in EFL instructors and KSI in non-EFL instructors. There was a significant difference in the scores for OC in EFL instructors and OC in non-EFL instructors. There was a significant difference in the scores for OCB in EFL instructors and OCB in non-EFL instructors. On the other hand, there was not a significant difference in the scores for LOC in EFL instructors and LOC in non-EFL instructors. Based on the results of the study, LOC was a significant positive predictor of OC and KSI. It was also found that OC was a positive predictor of KSI and OCB was a positive predictor of KSI. However, LOC was not a significant predictor of OCB. OC was not a significant predictor of OCB as well.
Elham Naji Meidani; Reza Pishghadam; Behzad Ghonsooly; Azar Hosseini Fatemi
Abstract
1. IntroductionIn our age of speed and communication, time plays an important role in all dimensions of our lives. Globalization, which has brought about intensity of human relations, has raised the value of time. Time is a complex concept which has developed a specific meaning in every culture and society. ...
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1. IntroductionIn our age of speed and communication, time plays an important role in all dimensions of our lives. Globalization, which has brought about intensity of human relations, has raised the value of time. Time is a complex concept which has developed a specific meaning in every culture and society. People's conceptions about time have such high significance that some perceive them as the type of culture those people live in. Levine (1997) contended that a culture’s basic value system can be reflected in its norms and beliefs about time; thereby time is considered a social construct. English language teachers and learners deal with English culture, in which time is highly valued. Using Bourdieu's (1984) terms, they are in a "field" in which time and punctuality are important, and which being punctual can turn into a "habitus". Therefore, it is assumed that because of their familiarity with English culture, these two groups may have different conceptions towards time and a critical view towards how time is managed in the Iranian society and the educational system.2. MethodologyTo collect the required data, face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted in Persian. The interviews were all conducted in language institutes. The number of participants was not set a priori and with 8 language teachers and 10 language learners saturation point was gained. The language teachers and learners were all teaching and learning at English language institutes in Mashhad, respectively. A set of eight questions was designed regarding the participants' sociological conceptions of time. The first five items were broad, general questions, and the researcher added complementary questions in the course of the interview. The last three questions consisted of three hypothesized scenarios based on White, Valk, and Dialmy's (2011) study, in which the interviewees were asked how late each person in the scenario can come late. The social relationships in three situations were designed based on Scollon and Scollon (2001). Therefore, three relationships were taken into account: deference, solidarity, and hierarchy.3. ResultsOverall, the findings revealed that both teachers and learners are dissatisfied with time management in the educational system and everyday culture and they themselves have not been influenced by English culture's punctuality. The themes extracted from the interviews were the following: lack of adequate attention to time in the educational system, high potentiality for waste of time in language classes, a passive attitude towards time in Iranian culture and society, having the right to be late based on social relationships, thinking about the future and not the present, and not being influenced by western culture's punctuality.4. DiscussionDue to their particular characteristics, English language classes have a different environment from other classes. Examples of these characteristics include: discussing various topics, doing group work, and having a friendly and fun environment (see Pishghadam, Zabihi, & Shayesteh, 2015). The aforementioned features increase the level of subjectivity in English language teaching (ELT) classes and learners try to present their ideas and opinions. They certainly do have many advantages for learners and can increase their creativity, emotional intelligence, willingness to communicate, and social skills. However, if management is not properly done, these positive points can lead to a waste of time in the classroom. Some learners' over talking lead to feelings of dissatisfaction in the others and decreases the efficiency of the class. The other issue mentioned in the interviews was error correction. What seems important is that error correction should not take up too much of classtime. A particular aspect of English language classes is the comparison of learners' home culture with the target culture. Unfortunately, past research has revealed that this point often brings about deculturaltion in learners and even teachers (Pishghadam & Navari, 2009; Pishghadam & Saboori, 2011; Rahimi, 2011; Shahasavandi, Ghonsooly, & Kamyabi, 2010). It appears that learners and teachers pay attention to the negative aspects of Western culture and become influenced by it, but they do not show much interest in the positive aspects, such as punctuality and time management. The results revealed that in two types of relationship lateness was considered acceptable, namely, solidarity and hierarchy. In case of solidarity, the close relationship that exists between the two sides allows for the tolerance of unpunctuality. This can be explained by the fact the Iran is a high-context culture (Hofstede, 1986). Similarly, the hierarchical context allows for acceptance of unpunctuality of the superior by the inferiors. A contradiction found in the results is that although the interviewees showed dissatisfaction towards the delay of instructors in appointments, when they were put in the hypothetical scenario and asked about how late a university instructor can come, they mentioned long periods. This point demonstrates that in our society, the cultural aspect can be more favored that the moral or reasonable aspect. As the findings of the interviews revealed, the basis of inadequate attention to time is culture. Time is an important concept in the field of language learning with many applications. Since learning English has become a necessity nowadays, there is a need for speed in learning to reach the required credits as soon as possible. Therefore, more research should be done in line with this study.
Fatemeh Mohaghegh Mahjoobi; Reza Pishghadam; Azar Hoseini Fatemi
Abstract
1. IntroductionCultural infrastructure in adopting appropriate teaching and learning methods in EFL classes is crucial. The meaning of silence is culture-bound and cultural guidelines govern when and why one employs silence. Learning to speak and write in English in Iranian EFL classrooms seems to be ...
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1. IntroductionCultural infrastructure in adopting appropriate teaching and learning methods in EFL classes is crucial. The meaning of silence is culture-bound and cultural guidelines govern when and why one employs silence. Learning to speak and write in English in Iranian EFL classrooms seems to be a process of challenging one’s values. Iranian EFL learners, with a “silence is gold” mentality and accustomed to a dialectic approach in education tradition, experience a totally new atmosphere in English classes including discussions and interaction with their teachers and peers. Thus, diversity of views in educational practices underscores the necessity of understanding the meanings of silence that are common in a given socio-cultural context such as Iran. Also, the relevance of silence meanings to educational practices in Iranian EFL classrooms can assist language learners to gain the most from their EFL classroom and can improve their speaking and writing skills.In Iran, parts of these cultural guidelines come from educational literature, religious teaching and every day culture in a society.2. MethodologyThe present study aimed at uncovering the underlying assumptions about silence in Persian culture within the framework of Hofstede’s(1991) and Hall’s (1976) theories as well as relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson, 1986, 1995) through content analysis. Multiple data collection sources (proverbs, literary and religious texts) were utilized both to provide in-depth information and to increase the validity of the findings. Consults with experts in the field of Persian literature and theology provided a basis for developing the scope and orientation of the research.Didactic literature including poetry and prose on silence was garnered in chronological order during the period of the 4th to the current century. The unabridged dictionary of Persian proverbs (Dahgan, 1383) and ten thousand Persian proverbs (Shakoori Rad, 1382) were selected to draw the proverbs on silence.Religious texts on silence, i.e., Quranic verses and Hadiths by the Prophet Muhammad, Imam Ali and other Imams were obtained respectively from Akhlagh dar Quran (Makarem shirazi, 1378), Nahjolbalaghe (Dashti, 1379), and Nahjolfesahe (Payandeh, 1383).The data collection resulted in a corpus of 600 verses and prose, 250 proverbs as well as 180 verses and Hadiths. Themes that emerged from the coding were analyzed using the software program Nvivo8. The data collection continued until saturation was achieved. Thus, concepts which were closely linked in meaning were formed into categories and categories with similar meanings, in turn, were brought together into a theme. Overall, 13 categories emerged. Then the categories were revised, modified and later collapsed into seven themes.3. DiscussionHighlights of the findings are as follows. The literary texts and proverbs take precedence firstly over intellectual and next over moral functions of silence while the priority in religious texts is first on the moral and next on the intellectual function of silence.The intellectual function of silence drawn from literary texts highlights its role not only in saving one’s face and saving one’s life but also in saving others’ face and saving others’ lives. It seems that in a collectivist culture such as Iran, it is important to maintain unity and harmony. Intellectual function drawn from religious texts serves to protect Muslims “in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religion would occur thereby” (Mo’men, 1985, p. 102). Promoting silence in literary texts related to moral function of silence is under the influence of religious teachings. This function places emphasis on promoting piety and salvation. According to the religious texts, the dangers and harms of tongue are many and there is no rescue from them except silence. Hence, moral function of silence (guarding one’s tongue), on one hand leads to personal self-improvement and salvation and on the other hand, leads to society prosperity by sustaining consensus and avoiding conflicts.4. ConclusionThe results reveal that silence majorly has intellectual and moral functions in Iranian culture. Therefore, it can provide a clearer picture of Iranian culture. The findings of this study provide a detailed and localized understanding of the assumptions of silence which seems necessary to the process of teaching and learning English.
